로봇 기술 셋을 한 모델에, NestedVLA 평균 성공률 66.7%로 기존 병합의 2.6배

Abstract

Vision–Language–Action (VLA) models promise generalist robotic agents, yet consolidating skills learned across heterogeneous tasks and environments remains difficult: training data is fragmented across platforms, joint multi-task training suffers from interference, and model merging tends to introduce parameter conflicts or require architectural changes. We instead advocate a paradigm in which skills are first learned independently and then consolidated post hoc. To this end, we propose NestedVLA, which replaces parameter aggregation with parameter generation: a nested hypernetwork, conditioned on the target task, synthesizes task-adaptive action-expert parameters that compose with a frozen base VLA. Task-specific compressed VLM residuals are retained separately. This formulation enables flexible task-conditioned skill reuse while mitigating interference. Across three RL benchmarks (MetaWorld, ManiSkill, CALVIN), NestedVLA outperforms the strongest model-merging baseline by 41 pp on average, matches per-task fine-tuning within 1 pp on ManiSkill, and substantially closes the gap on CALVIN, pointing toward a storage-efficient route to skill consolidation. Code is available at https://github.com/WanyuGroup/NeurIPS2026-NestedVLA.

1 Introduction

Vision-language-action (VLA) models combine visual and language understanding with embodied control [2, 71, 26, 1, 40]. Independently fine-tuning a common backbone produces policies specialized for different robotic benchmarks, but storing one full checkpoint per benchmark duplicates most parameters. Joint multi-task training can avoid this duplication when data from all benchmarks can be pooled. We instead study post-hoc consolidation of policies independently fine-tuned from the same backbone. We seek to consolidate their task-specific parameter updates into a compact representation without pooling the original training data.

A natural post-hoc approach is to merge the parameter updates of the fine-tuned policies into a single checkpoint. In VLA models, however, independently learned updates can interfere strongly when combined: in our experiments, simple averaging loses most of the performance of the separate policies. Our weight-space analysis finds weak alignment across major parameter groups, an incompatibility that is particularly consequential in the action expert because it directly governs control (Appendix E). This observation is consistent with MergeVLA [16], which likewise identifies dependencies distributed across action-expert layers as a major obstacle to cross-skill merging. These findings motivate a consolidation strategy that preserves policy-specific parameter structure rather than collapsing all updates into one set of weights.

We propose NestedVLA, a framework that shifts the paradigm from parameter aggregation to parameter generation. A hypernetwork embedded in the VLA generates sparse action-expert updates conditioned on the target task, while compressed task-specific VLM residuals are retained separately. The selected updates compose with a shared base to instantiate a task-specific VLA without changing its forward architecture or introducing routing supervision. We evaluate NestedVLA on MetaWorld [35], ManiSkill [45], and CALVIN [36] using the open-source \pi_{0.5} [40] backbone. NestedVLA outperforms the strongest model-merging baseline by 41 pp on average, matches per-task fine-tuning within 1 pp on ManiSkill, and substantially closes the gap on CALVIN.

2 Related Work

Vision-Language-Action models.

Recent VLAs cast robotic control as instruction-following on top of pretrained vision-language backbones [2, 71, 26, 24, 1, 40]. OpenVLA [26] discretizes actions into rare vocabulary tokens for autoregressive prediction; \pi_{0} [1] pairs the VLM with a separate action expert trained via flow matching for continuous action chunks; \pi_{0.5} [40] extends this design to interleave sub-task narration and low-level control. Lighter variants such as VLA-Adapter [51] preserve multi-task competence at sub-billion-parameter scales. VLAct uses representation-centric continued pre-training to preserve VLM priors and promote shared action semantics across embodiments [63]. Across this family, multi-task ability is learned from pooled data, requiring co-located datasets and predefined skills. We target the regime where these assumptions break: skills are acquired independently and consolidated after the fact.

Parameter-efficient visual adaptation.

Prompt- and adapter-based methods offer lightweight alternatives to full fine-tuning of vision backbones. Recent work makes prompts instance-aware, injects structured visual semantics, or searches for layer-specific prompt fusion rules [57, 58, 59]. Structured low-rank adaptation further filters task-irrelevant directions and coordinates updates across layers [61], while visual alignment methods address over-reliance on language priors in multimodal models [60]. Meng et al. [38] propose AHRA, a hierarchical shared–private expert framework that aligns semantic levels while preserving modality-specific evidence. Such methods adapt or organize multimodal representations; NestedVLA instead starts from independently trained VLA policies and consolidates their parameter updates post hoc.

Hypernetworks.

Using one network to predict the parameters of another dates back to HyperNetworks [20], with later applications to continual learning [46] and multi-task NLP [25]. Recent parameter generators use latent diffusion to synthesize neural-network weights [48], scale this process to full models with recurrent generation [49], map task prompts directly to LoRA weights [31], or produce instance-conditioned weight updates as functional memory [56]. NestedVLA inherits this task-conditioned generation premise, but targets a sparse top-K delta on a frozen billion-scale VLA backbone via patch-based tokenization, and consolidates independently fine-tuned RL policies rather than learning skills from scratch.

Reusable task updates.

Related work on language models compresses full-model task updates into modular SkillPacks for heterogeneous knowledge fusion and multi-domain specialization [13, 30]. HoE instead extracts LoRA-form experts from task vectors and routes them for multi-objective alignment [29]. These studies concern text-only language models and retain or select task modules. NestedVLA studies closed-loop VLA policies and generates the action-expert update with an embedded hypernetwork.

Model merging.

Model merging combines independently trained checkpoints into a single deployable model. Recent surveys organize model fusion across parameter, representation, and behavior levels [3, 69, 70]. Static merging produces one fixed delta via weighted averaging [55, 34, 22, 11], conflict-handling [62, 65, 5, 10, 14], or low-rank sub-spaces [17, 44, 33, 32, 12], with adapter counterparts [66, 68]. Dynamic merging retains per-task masks, scalars, residuals, or frequency-domain corrections at inference [47, 21, 67, 27, 7]. Recent adaptive methods build reusable component-level expert libraries for input-aware recombination [42] or evolve experts with manifold-aware, training-free routing for continual merging [43]. Across both regimes the operative verb is select: every output value is an interpolation, mask, or projection of values already present in \{\theta_{m}-\theta_{0}\}_{m}. Complementary studies make expert training merge-aware [19], calibrate or quantize post-merge models [18, 50], and analyze scaling laws or expert-read budgets for weight-space merging [53, 52]. NestedVLA generates the per-skill delta from a single shared hypernetwork instead. Embodied applications of merging remain largely unexplored; ReVLA [6] mitigates single-skill domain forgetting rather than multi-skill consolidation.

3 NestedVLA

3.1 Problem Formulation

We consider M task-specific datasets \mathfrak{D}=\{\mathcal{D}_{m}\}_{m=1}^{M}, each corresponding to a manipulation task in a benchmark-specific setting. Fine-tuning a pretrained VLA backbone \Theta_{0} on each \mathcal{D}_{m} yields task-specific parameters \{\Theta_{m}\}_{m=1}^{M} and the corresponding task vector [22]

\tau_{m}\;=\;\Theta_{m}-\Theta_{0},

which captures all parameter changes induced by task m. We treat each \tau_{m} as the parametric encoding of a skill, a reusable manipulation capability acquired in isolation. The goal of skill consolidation is to construct a unified model that leverages the entire skill set \{\tau_{m}\}_{m=1}^{M} across diverse downstream scenarios without storing full per-task checkpoints or using expert routing.

A common approach is to merge \{\tau_{m}\} into a single static delta [22, 62, 55, 34, 5]. However, parameter aggregation in the VLA setting suffers from severe inter-task conflicts (Sec. 1), as different tasks impose contradictory updates on the same parameters. We instead propose to generate parameters. Write \Theta_{m}=(\Theta_{m}^{V},\Theta_{m}^{A}) for the VLM and action-expert parameters. In the evaluated v1 system, a generator \mathcal{G}_{\phi}, conditioned on task identifier m, produces the action-expert delta, while a compressed VLM delta z_{m}^{V} is retained for the same task:

\hat{\tau}_{m}^{A}=\mathcal{G}_{\phi}(m),\qquad\hat{\Theta}_{m}^{A}=\Theta_{0}^{A}+\hat{\tau}_{m}^{A},\qquad\hat{\Theta}_{m}^{V}=\Theta_{0}^{V}+z_{m}^{V}.

Both updates compose with the frozen base at inference. This shifts the action-side problem from parameter aggregation to parameter generation, avoiding full per-task checkpoints and a single conflicting merge.

3.2 Overview

NestedVLA realizes the generator \mathcal{G}_{\phi} as a hypernetwork nested inside the VLA pipeline: it shares the backbone’s parameter layout as its output space, is trained against targets derived from the backbone’s task vectors, and is queried jointly with the backbone at inference. The framework operates in three stages (Fig. 2):

1. Skill Acquisition (§3.3): fine-tune \Theta_{0} on each \mathcal{D}_{m}, then compress the resulting task vector \tau_{m} into a sparse skill z_{m} via drop-and-rescale.
2. Skill Consolidation (§3.4): train one nested hypernetwork \mathcal{G}_{\phi} to absorb all M action-expert targets \{z_{m}^{A}\}_{m=1}^{M} into shared parameters \phi with task embeddings.
3. Skill Generation (§3.5): at inference, query \mathcal{G}_{\phi} with the target task identity to generate the action-expert delta, retrieve the compressed VLM delta, and compose both updates with the frozen base.

3.3 Skill Acquisition

The acquisition stage produces, for each task, a sparse skill representation z_{m} that the hypernetwork can later be trained against. It comprises two steps: independent fine-tuning to obtain \tau_{m}, and drop-and-rescale compression to turn \tau_{m} into the compact z_{m}.

Independent fine-tuning.

For each \mathcal{D}_{m}, we fine-tune \Theta_{0} to obtain \Theta_{m} and the task vector \tau_{m}=\Theta_{m}-\Theta_{0}. We make no assumption on the training signal: \Theta_{m} may be obtained via supervised fine-tuning, reinforcement learning, or any combination thereof, as long as all \{\Theta_{m}\} are derived from the same \Theta_{0}. This decoupling matches the data-silo realities of robotics, where specialized skills are often trained independently in their native pipelines.

Drop-and-rescale compression.

A naive option is to use the dense \tau_{m} as the hypernetwork target, but this is prohibitive in both memory and learnability for VLA backbones with billions of parameters. We observe that VLA fine-tuning deltas exhibit a sparse-magnitude-dominated structure: a small fraction of elements concentrate the bulk of the delta’s \ell_{2} energy, while the rest behave like low-amplitude noise; in contrast, LLM SFT deltas are typically denser and benefit from quantization-plus-low-rank schemes such as D-QRELO [28]. We compared low-bit quantization, low-rank decomposition, and drop-and-rescale on VLA deltas and found drop-and-rescale dominates the fidelity-versus-compression trade-off (§D); we adopt it throughout NestedVLA.

Operator definition.

Let \tau_{m}^{(p)}\in\mathbb{R}^{d_{p}} denote the slice of \tau_{m} for parameter tensor p. For a module budget K\in(0,1], we compute a per-module top-K binary mask M_{m}^{(p)} that retains the elements with the largest magnitude within the module p belongs to. The skill representation is

z_{m}^{(p)}\;=\;\alpha\cdot\tau_{m}^{(p)}\odot M_{m}^{(p)},

where \alpha is a global rescale factor that compensates for the energy lost during sparsification. Module-level (rather than per-tensor) top-K allocates the budget adaptively across layers, which improves downstream fidelity (§D). The mask is deterministic given \tau_{m}: it is precomputed once and applied multiplicatively to the loss at training (Eq. 4) and to the head output at inference (Eq. 5). The hypernetwork only learns the dense values on M_{m}{=}1 positions.

3.4 Skill Consolidation

Given the action-expert targets \{z_{m}^{A}\}_{m=1}^{M}, the consolidation stage trains a single hypernetwork \mathcal{G}_{\phi} that absorbs the entire skill set into one set of shared parameters \phi. We describe the parameter tokenization that exposes the backbone layout to the hypernetwork (§3.4.1), the architecture of \mathcal{G}_{\phi} (§3.4.2), and the training objective (§3.4.3).

3.4.1 Patch-based Parameter Tokenization

A direct regression \mathcal{G}_{\phi}(m)\to z_{m} over a billion-element output is infeasible. We tokenize the parameter space into a 2D grid of patches. Each weight tensor in the backbone is split into fixed-size H_{\text{patch}}\times W_{\text{patch}} tiles (large tensors span multiple patches; small tensors are zero-padded into one). Every patch is uniquely addressed by four indices: parameter type (ptype, e.g. self-attention Q/K/V/O, FFN gate/up/down, layer norm), layer (transformer block index), and patch_h, patch_w (tile coordinates within the source tensor). This factorization exposes a structured spatial layout to the generator while keeping the per-token output dimension bounded. Concrete patch counts and tile sizes are reported in §4.1.

3.4.2 Hypernetwork Architecture

\mathcal{G}_{\phi} has five trainable components, illustrated in Fig. 3: per-task patch embeddings, a task encoder, a concat-and-broadcast step, a shared FC trunk with a per-task LoRA path, and a multi-head output module. In our ablations (§4.3), the three task-conditioned components (patch embeddings, LoRA, multi-head output) are called the patch path, LoRA path, and multi-head path.

Per-task patch embeddings.

Each of the four patch indices (ptype, layer, patch_h, patch_w) is mapped through a learnable embedding table indexed by both the patch index and the task id. The four resulting vectors are concatenated to form a per-patch feature. Per-task indexing (as opposed to a single shared table) lets the hypernetwork use different effective patch addresses for different tasks, which gives a small but consistent gain in our ablations.

Task encoder.

The task identifier m is mapped to a learnable task embedding \text{task\_emb}(m), reshaped onto a small spatial grid, and processed by a lightweight 2D convolutional encoder followed by global average pooling, yielding a single task feature f_{\text{task}}\in\mathbb{R}^{D_{t}}. This vector is the only carrier of task identity entering the rest of the network. The 2D-conv design is empirical; we did not observe meaningful gains from increasing its depth or width.

Concatenate and broadcast.

f_{\text{task}} is broadcast across all patches and concatenated with the four patch embeddings to form a per-patch input [f_{\text{task}};\,\texttt{ptype};\,\texttt{layer};\,\texttt{patch\_h};\,\texttt{patch\_w}]. This is the only point where task and patch information meet; everything before it is either purely task-side or purely patch-side, and everything after it is patch-wise.

Shared FC trunk and LoRA path.

A shared fully-connected layer of hidden dimension h with non-linearity provides task-invariant feature transport across patches. A per-task low-rank LoRA path of rank r runs in parallel to allow each task to slightly perturb the trunk’s representation without a separate trunk per task. We ablate both the shared FC and the LoRA path in §4.3.

Multi-head output.

The trunk output is decoded by a multi-head module: each task is served by a dedicated fully-connected projection that maps the trunk representation to a flat patch prediction, which is then unflattened into an H_{\text{patch}}\times W_{\text{patch}} tile. Replacing the shared output (with optional low-rank task adapter) by per-task heads substantially mitigates multi-task interference at the cost of additional parameters in the output module (§4.3).

External rescale.

The factor \alpha in Eq. 3 is precomputed from \{\tau_{m}\} and stored externally rather than predicted by the hypernetwork. This avoids polluting the regression objective with a small number of high-leverage scalars whose gradient signal is otherwise dominated by the dense main-value targets.

3.4.3 Training Objective

We train \mathcal{G}_{\phi} with a multi-task masked regression loss

\mathcal{L}(\phi)\;=\;\sum_{m=1}^{M}w_{m}\cdot\frac{1}{|M_{m}^{A}|}\bigl\|\bigl(\mathcal{G}_{\phi}(m)-z_{m}^{A}\bigr)\odot M_{m}^{A}\bigr\|_{2}^{2},

where |M_{m}^{A}| counts the kept action-expert positions and \{w_{m}\} are task-balancing weights that compensate for the heterogeneous learnability of different benchmarks (§4.1). Loss is computed only on M_{m}{=}1 positions; the base VLA \Theta_{0} is frozen throughout training, and the only trainable parameters are \phi (patch embeddings, task encoder, shared FC, LoRA, multi-head output).

3.5 Skill Generation at Inference

At test time, given a target task m, we query the hypernetwork once, apply the precomputed action-expert mask and rescale, retrieve the compressed VLM update, and add both to the frozen base:

\displaystyle\hat{\Theta}_{m}^{A} \\ \displaystyle=\Theta_{0}^{A}+\alpha\,\mathcal{G}_{\phi}(m)\odot M_{m}^{A}, \\ \displaystyle\hat{\Theta}_{m}^{V} \\ \displaystyle=\Theta_{0}^{V}+z_{m}^{V}.

The resulting \hat{\Theta}_{m} is a complete VLA model that can be deployed without any architectural modification, expert routing, or runtime mixture computation. A single trained \mathcal{G}_{\phi} replaces the action-expert portions of M task-specific checkpoints with one shared generator, while retaining compressed VLM updates and small task-specific metadata.

4 Experiments

We evaluate NestedVLA on three closed-loop manipulation benchmarks and ask three questions: (i) can a single nested hypernetwork consolidate a heterogeneous skill set without storing a full checkpoint per skill (§4.2)? (ii) which design choices matter (§4.3)? (iii) where does the remaining gap to per-task fine-tuning come from (§4.4)?

4.1 Setup

Backbone and skills.

We instantiate \Theta_{0} as \pi_{0.5} [40] and collect three skills by independently fine-tuning with FlowSDE [4] on MetaWorld [35], ManiSkill [45], and CALVIN [36], yielding task vectors \{\tau_{m}\}_{m=1}^{3}. The backbone factorizes into a VLM half (\sim3.21 B params) and an action expert (\sim0.40 B params); we confine the hypernetwork to the action expert and keep per-task VLM storage, motivated by a sanity test in which TIES- and WUDI-merged VLMs (with GT action experts) drop \geq 60 pp on MetaWorld and collapse CALVIN to 0\% chain completion.

Benchmarks and metrics.

MetaWorld (32 tasks, 256 trajectories) and ManiSkill (25 tasks, 320 trajectories) report success_once: a trajectory counts as successful if it reaches the goal at any point during rollout. CALVIN ABC-D (96 rollouts) is a long-horizon split where each rollout is a chain of five language-conditioned sub-tasks; we report success_at_end, the fraction of rollouts that complete the entire chain. For diagnostic purposes we also evaluate the ideal top-K reconstruction \Theta_{0}+\tau_{m}\odot M_{m}, i.e. the GT task vector masked at the same sparsity K but without learning \mathcal{G}_{\phi}. This upper-bounds any method that uses the same K and mask. All evaluations are run with the official RLinf [64] pipeline and averaged over 3 seeds (typical std. \pm 2.7\%).

Skill compression and hypernetwork.

Each \tau_{m} is compressed via drop-and-rescale at per-module top-K{=}10\% with global rescale \alpha{=}1.1. The hypernetwork \mathcal{G}_{\phi} covers 18 transformer blocks and 9 weight types (162 tensors), tiled into 256{\times}256 patches (T{=}6{,}480 patches per task). The shared FC has hidden width h{=}2048 with rank-1024 per-task LoRA, and the Multi-head Output allocates one h{\to}65{,}536 projection per task (\sim430 M trainable parameters).

Training.

We train 6{,}000 steps with batch size 3, base LR 3{\times}10^{-4}, LoRA multiplier 3.0, 600-step warmup and 1{,}500-step cosine tail, and task weights (1.0,0.4,1.0) for (MW, MA, CA) to compensate for the disproportionately large \|\tau_{\text{MA}}\|. All runs fit on a single A6000 GPU (\sim10 h).

Baselines.

Static merging: Averaging, TIES [62], WUDI [5], TSV-Merging [17]. Dynamic merging: TALL-Mask [47], EMR-Merging [21], Twin-Merging [32], and Free-Merging [67], all of which retain per-task masks (and in some cases scaling factors or low-rank residuals) at inference. Per-task FlowSDE: independent fine-tuning, the performance ceiling.

4.2 Main Results

Table 1 reports our headline result. NestedVLA attains an average success rate of 66.7\%, outperforming every static and dynamic merging baseline by 41–54 pp on average. On ManiSkill, the multi-task hypernetwork reaches 87.2\%, within 0.9 pp of the per-task FlowSDE ceiling (88.1\%). On CALVIN, NestedVLA reaches 75.0\% success_at_end, demonstrating that a single shared \phi can encode the skill at the precision required for chain-completion-grade evaluation. The remaining gap to the per-task FlowSDE reference (-13.8 pp on average) concentrates almost entirely on MetaWorld, which we analyze in §4.4.

Static merging.

None of the static merging baselines is competitive on cross-benchmark VLA fusion. Plain parameter averaging reaches 14.8\% average success; TIES [62], WUDI [5], and TSV-Merging [17] each underperform averaging despite incorporating sign-conflict resolution, weighted updates, or singular-vector compression. All four methods drive CALVIN to 0\% chain completion, consistent with our hypothesis (§1) that VLA representations are more sensitive to parameter perturbations than the SFT deltas these methods were primarily evaluated on.

Dynamic merging.

Retaining per-task information at inference time helps, but only modestly. TALL-Mask [47] achieves 22.6\% average success with per-task binary masks at 2.09\times storage. EMR-Merging [21] adds per-task sign modulators and scalars and reaches 23.0\% at 2.89\times storage, the highest budget of any baseline. Twin-Merging [32] attaches per-task low-rank residuals at 2.25\times and reaches 25.3\%. Free-Merging [67], the strongest dynamic baseline, applies frequency-domain filtering on per-task deltas and reaches 25.6\% at 2.16\times. Despite their parameter budgets ranging from 2.09\times to 2.89\times, the four methods cluster within a 3 pp band, suggesting the bottleneck is not storage but the underlying paradigm of selecting from a fixed set of base values.

Storage analysis.

NestedVLA’s 1.5\times overall budget decomposes asymmetrically across the two halves of the backbone. On top of the 1.0\times shared base, the VLM half (\sim3.21 B parameters, \sim89\% of the backbone) is stored per-task as a top-K{=}10\% compressed delta (a 1-bit mask plus the kept values), contributing \sim0.35\times across the three tasks. The action expert (\sim0.40 B parameters, \sim11\%) is generated by the hypernetwork at inference and stores only a precomputed mask per task (\sim0.01\times); the hypernetwork itself (\sim0.43 B parameters) adds \sim0.12\times. The detailed per-component derivation is given in App. C. The trainable capacity is therefore concentrated on the action side, the harder consolidation target where per-task deltas are denser and more conflicting, precisely where it is needed. This contrasts sharply with the dynamic baselines: EMR-Merging stores per-task masks and per-task scaling factors uniformly across the entire backbone at 2.89\times to reach only 23.0\%, while Twin-Merging and Free-Merging both pay \sim2.2\times for per-task residuals or frequency-domain corrections without distinguishing where additional capacity is useful. NestedVLA’s storage advantage at the evaluated three-skill setting comes from concentrating generation capacity on the action expert. Total storage still grows with the number of skills because compressed VLM residuals, masks, and task-specific generator components must be retained, but each skill adds substantially less than a full VLA checkpoint.

4.3 Ablations

Architectural ingredients.

Table 2 ablates the three trainable paths of \mathcal{G}_{\phi} at 2{,}000 steps, reporting in-mask standardized loss. Multi-head Output is the largest single contributor: removing this path (w/o Multi-head path) and falling back to a shared fc_main plus per-task LoRA caps every benchmark and degrades the loss by 0.2–0.5, indicating that the per-task targets \{z_{m}\} contain genuinely incompatible value distributions that a low-rank shared head cannot reconcile. Per-task patch embeddings, in contrast, give small marginal gains (w/o patch path differs from default by <0.1 on every task); their primary value is enabling sharper task discrimination at convergence rather than reducing average loss. Surprisingly, the shared FC LoRA is dispensable: removing it (w/o LoRA path) yields the lowest loss on all three benchmarks at 97\% of default parameter cost. Once the output is fully task-specific via Multi-head Output, additional task-specific perturbation in the FC harms early optimization without improving the final fit.

Compression operator.

We compared three operators at matched parameter budgets in a per-task fidelity study (\Theta_{0}+\hat{\tau}_{m} evaluated on benchmark m). One-bit quantization with a per-tensor scalar (adapted from D-QRELO [28]) yields reconstruction errors of 0.60–0.96 and degrades task success by -71 to -81 pp, because VLA RL deltas have an approximately zero-mean, near-isotropic element distribution that a single scalar cannot capture. Augmenting drop-and-rescale with a rank-r SVD residual yields at most +0.005 absolute fidelity improvement while inflating the token budget by an order of magnitude. Drop-and-rescale at K{=}10\% achieves reconstruction errors of 0.30 on the VLM half and 0.19 on the action half (substantially below the one-bit baseline at lower storage than residual SVD), and is the only operator of the three that requires no calibration data.

Loss-side choices.

We further ablated three knobs of the training objective on top of our default. Disabling the out-of-mask penalty (w_{\text{out}}=0) is the single most effective lever, adding +2.4 pp average success; positions outside M_{m} are masked at inference, so penalizing them at train time forces \mathcal{G}_{\phi} to allocate capacity to a function it does not need. Magnitude weighting (|\tau_{m}|^{p}) and absolute loss space each harm performance individually but combine constructively with w_{\text{out}}=0, suggesting they act as implicit regularizers that compensate for the otherwise unbounded growth of the out-of-mask region. The standardized + w_{\text{out}}=0 recipe is our default; full ablation results are reported in Appendix G.

4.4 Where Does the Remaining Gap Come From?

Table 3 localizes the remaining gap to MetaWorld. On ManiSkill and CALVIN, NestedVLA reaches 99\% and 96\% of the K{=}10\% ideal respectively, indicating that the hypernetwork extracts near-ceiling value from the sparsity budget it was given. MetaWorld, in contrast, attains only 37.9\% against an 72.3\% FlowSDE reference. However, the K{=}10\% ideal itself is only 48.4\% on MetaWorld, against which NestedVLA’s retention is also 78\%, on par with the other two benchmarks.

The MetaWorld gap is therefore primarily a sparsity-budget problem at skill acquisition, not a hypernetwork-capacity problem at consolidation. Raising K to 0.20 lifts the MetaWorld ideal to 60.2\% at little cost elsewhere (Tab. 3), making per-task adaptive K a natural remedy.

5 Conclusion

We studied skill consolidation in VLA models when training data is fragmented across benchmark-specific tasks. Standard model-merging methods degrade catastrophically on cross-benchmark VLA fusion: the strongest baseline reaches only 25.6\% average success across MetaWorld, ManiSkill, and CALVIN. We introduced NestedVLA, which replaces action-expert parameter selection with parameter generation via a nested hypernetwork, reaching 66.7\% average success at 1.5\times storage (+41.1 pp over the strongest dynamic baseline), and matching per-task fine-tuning within 1 pp on ManiSkill while reaching the K{=}10\% sparsity-budget ceiling on CALVIN. The MetaWorld gap is bounded by the top-K ideal itself, with adaptive sparsity the natural next direction.

Acknowledgments and Disclosure of Funding

Funding statement. This work was supported by the Projects of RIAIoT (Project ID P0065264), UDomain Web Hosting Company Limited (Collaboration) (Project ID P0064507), and the Innovation and Technology Fund–Guangdong-Hong Kong Technology Cooperation Funding Scheme (ITF-TCFS) (Project ID P0049179).

Competing interests. The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

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Appendix Overview

This appendix provides supplementary material that supports the main paper. We organize it into four sections. Appendix A reports the full implementation details of NestedVLA, including hypernetwork architecture, training hyperparameters, and evaluation protocol, for reproducibility. Appendix B describes every baseline used in Table 1, listing their merge mechanism and the configuration we used. Appendix C makes the parameter budgets reported in Table 1 explicit, deriving the \mathrm{Params} column entry-by-entry. Appendix D expands the discussion of skill compression in §4.3, comparing one-bit quantization, low-rank decomposition, and drop-and-rescale on VLA deltas, and reporting a full keep-ratio sweep that motivates our default K{=}10\%. Appendix F presents the static VLM merging sanity test that justifies our design choice of confining \mathcal{G}_{\phi} to the action expert and keeping per-task VLM storage. Appendix G reports the full loss-side ablation summarized in §4.3, including the non-monotone interaction between out-of-mask penalty, loss space, and magnitude weighting. Appendix H lists the limitations of the current study. Appendix I states the broader-impact considerations referenced in the NeurIPS checklist.

For broader multimodal context, related studies examine governed agent collaboration, reinforcement-learned panoramic scanpaths for quality assessment, shared–private branch rebalancing, temporal answer grounding, and fine-grained reasoning evaluation [37, 54, 39, 41, 23]. Earlier visual studies by the authors investigate evolutionary refinement of pretrained networks and RAW-image restoration [9, 8].

Appendix A Implementation Details

This section reports the exact hyperparameters, compute budget, and evaluation protocol used in our experiments. All quantities not stated explicitly in the main paper are listed here.

A.1 Backbone and Skill Collection

We use \pi_{0.5} [40] as the shared base \Theta_{0}, which factorizes into a \sim3.21 B-parameter VLM half (a PaliGemma backbone with vision tower, language model, and projectors) and a \sim0.40 B-parameter action expert (transformer decoder for continuous action chunks via flow matching). The total backbone is \sim3.61 B parameters.

Each per-task skill is obtained by independently fine-tuning \Theta_{0} with FlowSDE [4] on the corresponding benchmark dataset. The three skills span heterogeneous task suites (MetaWorld: 32 language-conditioned manipulation tasks; ManiSkill: 25 object manipulation tasks across diverse rigid bodies; CALVIN: long-horizon language-conditioned tabletop tasks). We do not modify the FlowSDE training pipeline; the resulting per-task checkpoints constitute our \{\Theta_{m}\}_{m=1}^{3}.

A.2 Hypernetwork Architecture

Table 4 lists the full hypernetwork specification. The hypernetwork covers all 162 trainable weight tensors of the action expert (18 transformer blocks \times 9 weight types: self-attention Q/K/V/O, FFN gate/up/down, and two layer norms). Tensors are tiled into 256{\times}256 patches, with zero-padding for tensors smaller than 256{\times}256 and grid splits for tensors larger than this size. The total patch count per task is T=6{,}480.

A.3 Training Details

The hypernetwork is trained with AdamW (base learning rate 3{\times}10^{-4}, LoRA group multiplier 3.0, weight decay 0.1 on non-LoRA parameters and 0 on LoRA), batch size 3 with one example per task per step, 6{,}000 total steps, 600-step linear warmup, and a 1{,}500-step cosine decay tail. Task-balancing weights are (1.0,0.4,1.0) for (MetaWorld, ManiSkill, CALVIN); the lower weight on ManiSkill compensates for the disproportionately large \|\tau_{\text{ManiSkill}}\|, which would otherwise dominate multi-task gradients (see §G).

All experiments fit on a single NVIDIA A6000 GPU (48 GB memory). Wall-clock training time is \sim10 hours per run; peak GPU memory is 42.6 GB during training. We enable PYTORCH_CUDA_ALLOC_CONF=expandable_segments:True to reduce fragmentation under bf16. Inference cost is dominated by the forward pass through \pi_{0.5}; the additional hypernetwork query adds negligible overhead and is performed once per skill switch.

A.4 Evaluation Protocol

MetaWorld: 256 trajectories across 32 tasks; we report success_once, the fraction of trajectories that reach the goal at any timestep. ManiSkill: 320 trajectories across 25 tasks; same metric. CALVIN ABC-D: 96 rollouts on the long-horizon split, each a sequence of five language-conditioned sub-tasks; we report success_at_end, the fraction of rollouts that complete the entire chain. All evaluations are run with the official RLinf [64] pipeline. All numbers in the main paper are averaged over 3 evaluation seeds with fixed initial-state sampling; the typical seed-to-seed standard deviation is \pm 2.7\%.

Appendix B Baselines Details

This section describes each baseline used in Table 1: four static merging methods (producing a single fixed delta), four dynamic merging methods (retaining per-task auxiliary information at inference), and a per-task fine-tuning reference. All baselines start from the same set of task vectors \{\tau_{m}=\Theta_{m}-\Theta_{0}\}_{m=1}^{3} obtained by independently fine-tuning \Theta_{0}=\pi_{0.5} with FlowSDE on MetaWorld, ManiSkill, and CALVIN.

Per-task FlowSDE (reference upper bound).

Each task is fine-tuned independently from \Theta_{0} with FlowSDE [4], the SDE-form flow-matching objective of \pi_{0.5}, yielding three full checkpoints \{\Theta_{m}\}_{m=1}^{3} at 3.0\times storage. This is the performance ceiling for any approach that does not change the underlying RL pipeline.

Static merging.

• Averaging [55, 15] merges the three task vectors by element-wise averaging, \bar{\tau}=\tfrac{1}{M}\sum_{m}\tau_{m}, and adds the result to the base, \Theta_{0}+\bar{\tau}. The simplest possible baseline, with no conflict resolution.
• TIES-Merging [62] resolves cross-task conflicts in three steps: trim (zero-out low-magnitude entries of each \tau_{m}), elect-sign (assign each parameter the sign of the task with the largest contribution), and disjoint-merge (average surviving entries across tasks). We use trim ratio k{=}0.8 and scaling 0.5, which perform best on our \pi_{0.5} task vectors.
• WUDI-Merging [5] formulates merging as an optimization problem that minimizes residual interference between the merged delta and the per-task deltas, iteratively refining the merged vector via a whitening-style update. We use the v1 variant with 300 iterations following the authors’ defaults.
• TSV-Merging [17] (Task-Singular-Vector Merging) defines a measure of task interference based on the interaction of singular vectors of different tasks and merges in their joint top subspace. The output is a single fused delta at 1.00\times storage; we retain the rank that captures \sim95\% of the per-task spectral energy.

Dynamic merging.

Dynamic methods retain per-task auxiliary information (binary masks, scalars, low-rank residuals, or frequency-domain corrections) and combine it with a shared static merge at inference.

• TALL-Mask [47] stores a per-task binary mask M_{m}\in\{0,1\}^{P} that selects which positions of the averaged delta are used for task m, and inferences with \Theta_{0}+\bar{\tau}\odot M_{m}. Masks are obtained by thresholding |\tau_{m}| at the per-task top-K{=}50\% default of the original paper.
• EMR-Merging [21] extends TALL-Mask by adding a per-task sign modulator and scaling factor that align both the direction and magnitude of the masked delta with each source model: \Theta_{0}+s_{m}\cdot\bar{\tau}\odot M_{m}, where M_{m} now combines the binary mask and per-element sign and s_{m} is the per-task rescaler. The modulators and scalars are stored alongside the masks; we follow the original paper without additional top-K thresholding.
• Twin-Merging [32] stores a shared mean delta plus a per-task low-rank residual A_{m}B_{m}^{\top} (rank r{=}16 in our setup) capturing what the mean cannot represent. Inference uses \Theta_{0}+\bar{\tau}+A_{m}B_{m}^{\top}.
• Free-Merging [67] applies a frequency-domain low-pass filter (DCT) on each per-task delta before merging, removing high-frequency components that are mostly task-specific noise. The filtered deltas are stored with per-task binary masks. We use the default DCT cut-off from the original paper.

Appendix C Storage Accounting

This section makes the \mathrm{Params} column of Table 1 explicit. All ratios are stated relative to one fine-tuned \pi_{0.5} checkpoint (P_{\text{base}}{=}3.61 B parameters in 32-bit floats), with P_{\text{VLM}}{=}3.21 B and P_{\text{act}}{=}0.40 B for the two halves. Two storage atoms are used throughout:

• a binary mask costs 1 bit per parameter, i.e. 1/32 of one 32-bit float at the same denomination;
• a top-K kept-value block costs K\cdot P floats.

Per-task scaling factors and per-task low-rank residuals are included where relevant. Table 6 reports the component-wise decomposition for every method.

Static merging.

Averaging, TIES, WUDI, and TSV-Merging all replace the base with a single merged delta and contribute 1.00\times total storage.

Dynamic merging.

Dynamic methods retain a static merged delta on top of the base (1.00\!+\!1.00 across the first two columns of Tab. 6) plus per-task auxiliary state at inference. TALL-Mask adds per-task binary masks of the average delta (M\!\cdot\!1/32\approx 0.09), totalling 2.09\times. EMR-Merging additionally stores per-task sign modulators and scalars, totalling 2.89\times. Twin-Merging attaches per-task low-rank residuals (rank r{=}16, M\!\cdot\!r(d_{\text{in}}+d_{\text{out}})/P_{\text{base}}\approx 0.25), totalling 2.25\times. Free-Merging stores per-task frequency-domain modulators (\approx 0.16), totalling 2.16\times.

NestedVLA.

Storage decomposes asymmetrically across the two halves of the backbone. The VLM half is kept per-task as a top-K compressed delta with K_{\text{VLM}}{=}10\% (mask plus kept values); the action half is generated by \mathcal{G}_{\phi} at inference and only its precomputed mask M_{m} is stored:

\text{storage}_{\text{NestedVLA}}\;=\;1\;+\;M\cdot\big(K_{\text{VLM}}+\tfrac{1}{32}\big)\cdot\tfrac{P_{\text{VLM}}}{P_{\text{base}}}\;+\;M\cdot\tfrac{1}{32}\cdot\tfrac{P_{\text{act}}}{P_{\text{base}}}\;+\;\tfrac{P_{\mathcal{G}_{\phi}}}{P_{\text{base}}}.

With K_{\text{VLM}}{=}0.10, P_{\text{VLM}}/P_{\text{base}}{=}0.89, P_{\text{act}}/P_{\text{base}}{=}0.11, and P_{\mathcal{G}_{\phi}}{=}0.43 B, the per-task masks across both halves contribute M\cdot 1/32\approx 0.09 (Mask column of Tab. 6); the per-task VLM kept values together with the shared hypernetwork contribute M\cdot K_{\text{VLM}}\cdot P_{\text{VLM}}/P_{\text{base}}+P_{\mathcal{G}_{\phi}}/P_{\text{base}}\approx 0.27+0.12=0.39 (\mathcal{G}_{\phi} column), summing to

1\;+\;0.09\;+\;0.39\;\approx\;1.48\times,

which we report as 1.5\times in Table 1. NestedVLA remains the lowest-storage method among all approaches that condition on task identity, \sim0.7\times smaller than the strongest dynamic baseline (Free-Merging) and \sim1.5\times smaller than per-task FlowSDE.

Appendix D Skill Compression Study

This section expands the brief discussion of compression operators in §4.3. We compared three operator families on VLA fine-tuning deltas: low-bit quantization, low-rank decomposition via SVD, and drop-and-rescale (top-K magnitude masking with global rescale). All experiments use per-task fidelity evaluation: the compressed delta \hat{\tau}_{m} is added to \Theta_{0} and evaluated on the corresponding benchmark m, isolating compression loss from consolidation loss.

D.1 Operator Comparison at Matched Storage

Table 7 compares the three operators at matched effective-storage budgets. One-bit quantization (adapted from D-QRELO [28] by storing each parameter as a 1-bit sign with a per-tensor scalar) collapses on VLA deltas: relative reconstruction error reaches 0.60–0.96 across the three tasks, and downstream task success drops by -71 to -81 pp relative to per-task FlowSDE. The failure mode is structural: VLA RL deltas have an approximately zero-mean, near-isotropic per-element distribution (driven by exploration noise and multi-step credit assignment), so a single per-tensor scalar cannot capture within-tensor variance. We verified this pattern holds for both VLM and action halves and for all three benchmarks.

Drop-and-rescale (K{=}10\%, \alpha{=}1.1, no SVD residual) achieves substantially lower reconstruction errors (0.30 on the VLM half and 0.19 on the action half) and retains \geq 96\% of per-task FlowSDE on ManiSkill and CALVIN. It is the only operator of the three that requires no calibration data.

Drop-and-rescale plus SVD residual extends drop-and-rescale with a per-parameter rank-r SVD residual, in the spirit of “main + residual” designs adapted from D-QRELO. Even at a 10\% residual storage budget, the additional fidelity improvement is at most +0.005 in absolute reconstruction error (Table 7, last column), while the token budget inflates by an order of magnitude (rank-r residuals require r\cdot(m+n) extra tokens per parameter). We conclude that VLA deltas have no usable low-rank structure beyond the top-K tail and adopt drop-and-rescale alone throughout NestedVLA.

D.2 Keep-Ratio Sweep

Table 8 reports the full keep-ratio sweep K\in\{0.05,0.10,0.15,0.20\} at fixed rescale \alpha=1.0 on all three benchmarks. Three observations stand out.

First, the optimal keep-ratio is task-dependent: ManiSkill peaks at K{=}0.15 (91.6\% success_once, +3.4 pp over FlowSDE), while CALVIN peaks at K{=}0.20 (85.4\% success_at_end, +4.2 pp over FlowSDE). MetaWorld is monotonically improving from K{=}0.05 to K{=}0.20 but never reaches FlowSDE’s 72.3\% even at K{=}0.20 (60.2\%).

Second, ManiSkill is non-monotonic in K: K{=}0.15 outperforms both K{=}0.10 and K{=}0.20. We interpret this as a signal-to-noise sweet spot: below 0.15, important parameters are dropped; above 0.15, low-magnitude noise is reintroduced. The same sweet-spot behavior is consistent with the rescale sweep (not shown).

Third, on a per-module basis, the embedding layer is always fully dropped at every keep-ratio we tested, while small action-interface layers (action input/output projections) are retained at 44–64\%. This structural pattern is consistent across all three benchmarks and motivates module-level top-K selection rather than per-tensor selection. The non-uniform sparsity budget across the network is what drop-and-rescale captures implicitly and what explicit per-tensor compression cannot.

Appendix E Supplementary Weight-space Diagnostics

We measure source-model deltas relative to the pretrained checkpoint. For each parameter group, Table 9 reports the cosine similarity of concatenated deltas and sign agreement on valid coordinates. The three-way interference quantity is \mathrm{IF}=1-\|\sum_{m}\delta_{m}\|_{2}/\sum_{m}\|\delta_{m}\|_{2}. Action-expert and VLM-body deltas have low pairwise alignment. These statistics describe the source checkpoints; they do not alone establish a causal explanation of rollout failure or the superiority of one objective.

Appendix F VLM Static Merging Sanity Test

The main paper confines the hypernetwork to the action expert and keeps per-task VLM storage. This section provides the empirical evidence supporting that design choice. We ran a sanity test in which only the VLM half is consolidated across tasks (via TIES or WUDI), while the action expert remains the GT per-task FlowSDE checkpoint. This isolates the cost of VLM consolidation and answers whether the VLM is consolidatable in principle.

F.1 Setup

For each of the three benchmarks, we constructed a sanity checkpoint by replacing only the VLM portion of the per-task FlowSDE checkpoint with a 3-task-merged VLM. The action expert is the unmodified GT per-task FlowSDE expert. Two merge strategies were tested:

• TIES VLM: TIES-Merging [62] applied with trim-rate k{=}0.8 and scaling 0.5, applied to the VLM half only.
• WUDI VLM: WUDI [5] run for 300 optimization iterations on the VLM half.

We did not apply mask or rescale corrections, in order to isolate the cost of static VLM consolidation alone. One technical exception: \pi_{0.5} uses tied embedding for language_model.embed_tokens, which is not stored in the merged VLM checkpoint; we fall back to per-task FlowSDE for this single tensor (representing 0.17\% of VLM parameters). Each sanity checkpoint is evaluated only on its corresponding benchmark; no cross-task transfer is measured.

F.2 Results

Table 10 reports the penalty in success rate relative to the same-batch FlowSDE reference. The penalties are severe across both methods and all three benchmarks. CALVIN is particularly diagnostic: success_at_end drops to 0\% for both methods, meaning no rollout completes the entire five-step chain. The MetaWorld penalty exceeds -60 pp for both methods, indicating that even strong consolidation strategies destroy the language-instruction routing required to identify the active sub-task within the 50-task suite. Only WUDI on ManiSkill stays within 10 pp of the FlowSDE reference, a single positive cell out of six, far below any usable threshold.

We conclude that static VLM consolidation, even in this favorable setting (action expert is GT), is not viable as a standalone design. The diagnostic also clarifies what kind of information the VLM encodes: cross-task language-instruction grounding, which is highly sensitive to parameter perturbation in a way that action-side representations are not. NestedVLA therefore confines its hypernetwork to the action expert and keeps per-task VLM storage; an extension to also generate VLM deltas via a hypernetwork is left to future work.

Full-model extension (v2).

We use v2 to denote a possible extension in which the addressed parameter blocks cover both the VLM and the action expert, so the hypernetwork generates both updates for the selected task. This removes the stored VLM values but substantially enlarges the output space and may require additional generator capacity and metadata. We do not evaluate this extension here; all reported results and storage measurements correspond to v1.

Appendix G Loss-Side Ablation

This appendix expands the brief discussion in §4.3 of the three knobs of the training objective in Eq. 4: the loss space (per-tensor standardized vs. absolute), an in-mask magnitude weighting |\tau_{m}|^{p} that emphasizes large-magnitude positions, and the out-of-mask penalty weight w_{\text{out}} that pulls \mathcal{G}_{\phi} toward zero on M_{m}{=}0 positions. Table 11 reports five configurations evaluated under the 6{,}000-step schedule of our default architecture.

Removing the out-of-mask penalty is the most effective lever.

Setting w_{\text{out}}=0 improves average success by +2.4 pp, the largest single-knob effect we measure. The mechanism is mechanical: positions outside M_{m} are masked away at inference and contribute nothing to the deployed delta, so penalizing them at train time forces \mathcal{G}_{\phi} to allocate capacity to a function it does not need. Empirically, the out-of-mask region’s loss drifts to \sim20 in standardized units when w_{\text{out}}=0, but this drift is absorbed by the inference-time mask and does not affect deployed performance.

Loss space and magnitude weighting are non-monotone.

The other two knobs each harm performance when applied alone: absolute loss space costs -2.9 pp and magnitude weighting at p{=}1 costs -5.4 pp relative to the default. Yet abs + mag p=1 recovers most of the loss (-0.6 pp). We interpret this as evidence that absolute and magnitude weighting function as implicit regularizers compensating for the unbounded growth of the out-of-mask region; when the standardized loss already provides scale normalization, neither operator is needed in isolation. The standardized + w_{\text{out}}=0 recipe cleanly beats every other configuration we tested and is our final default.

Appendix H Limitations

The current evaluation has four limitations that we mark as future work. (i) Skill-set scale. All experiments consolidate M{=}3 skills; we have not measured how training time, hypernetwork capacity, or output quality scale as M grows by an order of magnitude. (ii) Adding new skills. A new skill currently requires extending the per-task patch-embedding table, the per-task multi-head output, and re-training the hypernetwork; we have not demonstrated incremental or low-cost addition of an unseen skill. (iii) VLM consolidation. The VLM half is kept per-task as a top-K compressed delta, contributing \sim0.35\times of the 1.5\times budget; extending the hypernetwork to also generate VLM deltas would lower this floor but is left to future work (App. F shows that naïve static VLM merging is not viable). (iv) Real-robot evaluation. All numbers are from simulated benchmarks (MetaWorld, ManiSkill, CALVIN); transfer to physical hardware is not evaluated.

Appendix I Broader Impact

NestedVLA reduces the per-skill storage and serving cost of multi-task robotic policies by replacing per-task fine-tuned checkpoints with a single shared parameter generator. Like other efficient deployment methods, lowering this cost can amplify both beneficial uses (low-resource personalisation, on-device multi-skill manipulation, faster transfer between robot platforms) and risks already present in the underlying VLA stack, such as dual-use of robotic policies in unintended physical environments. Our hypernetwork operates entirely on parameter deltas of an existing publicly released backbone (\pi_{0.5}); we introduce no new training data or labels, and the deployed behaviour inherits the biases and failure modes of the source FlowSDE checkpoints. All our experiments are simulated; no physical robot is operated in this study. We see no direct path from the parameter-generation framework to a novel misuse scenario beyond those already discussed in the broader VLA literature.